In Latin, the PPP is simply the fourth principle part of any given verb. The PPP of frango is fractus, fracta, fractum.  So in Latin, He repaired the broken window is Fenestram fractam emundavit. Because the PPP is the fourth principle, learning all fourth principle parts of a verb will help in identifying a perfect passive participle.

Students unfamiliar with the PPP in Latin should use the longer, but more precise translation having been verbed. So instead of He repeaired the broken window, use He repaired the window having been broken. This will eliminate confusion about which part of speech is being used.

The perfect passive participle also explains the formation of the past tense perfect forms of verbs. If amatus means having been loved, and sum means I am, then amatus sum means literally I am having been loved, or  I have been loved. If amata  means I have been loved, and erit means he will be, then amata erit means she will be having been loved, or she will have been loved.

Many people assume that there are two ways to learn a language: for grammar or for conversation. They assume that learning for grammar is boring, tedious, and unproductive; and that learning for conversation is easy, fast, and immediately rewarding. Well, yes and no. It is generally faster to learn conversationally than grammatically, and grammar can certainly be boring. The conversational method is obviously extremely marketable, and many ads say that classroom/grammar-based learning is a waste of time and can be easily bypassed without losing anything. But, like most other things in life, either extreme is unhelpful, and there’s always a third option, and in many cases the third option is the best.

Over my years of linguistic experience, I’ve learned that both methods are equally important to learning language. In any language there are two overarching concepts: syntax and semantics. Simply put, syntax is grammar–what the words literally say–and semantics is what the words mean. This includes figures of speech, connotations, and the like. Grammar based curricula teach syntax, while conversational curricula teach semantics. You can’t have the one without the other. Well you can, but you really shouldn’t. It is important not only to know what you are saying, but why what you’re saying means what it means. We take English grammar classes in high school so that we can have a greater understanding of our langauge in practical use. So I say that both methods are necessary to learn a second language. A really good langauge course should involve both grammar practice (yes, that means drills and flashcards), as well as conversation. (Who wants to learn from a teacher who can’t use the language anyway?)

Level I

• SCRIBBLERS, SCVLPTORS, AND SCRIBES By Richard A. Lafleur This is a book of Roman graffiti, inscriptions, and primary texts that covers introductory grammar. For every inscription, there is an explanation of the grammar and the vocabulary, allowing students to see actual use of grammar concepts from primary sources. Though designed for use with Wheelock’s Latin, SCRIBBLERS, SCVLPTORS, AND SCRIBES works well with most other courses as well.

Level II

• There are many interlinear translations of famous works now available online. Interlinear means that the English is printed in a smaller font beneath the Latin text. Pick one and read it, making sure to read the Latin, not the English. Also, there are many untranslated texts available through the Perseus Project (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ ).
• Also, consider reading Edward Gibbon’s four-part series The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. This will help establish a context for many of the readings you’ll probably be going through in Latin III.

Level III

• If you’ve gotten to level III of Latin but can’t find your own summer reading, you should consider taking some other language, like German.

Number one: flashcards. While this method may seem quaint or boring, it really is one of the most effective methods for memorizing word endings. My advice is this: On one side write the official, grammatical name of the paradigm (a group of forms), such as First Conjugation: Present Active Indicative. On the other side, write out the forms. Note that this ony works of you know the use of each paradigm, so it may be a good idea to make another card with the name of each paradigm and the function of each or the translation of each. (Present Active Indicative–I am doing this)

Number two: repetition. I hate redundancy as much as the next guy, but in Latin, it is of first importance to study regularly and often. By often, I mean every day, and by regularly I mean every day. Spending just ten minutes a day studying will greatly improve your vocabulary and comprehension.

Number three: write stuff. There are three major learning styles: visual, aural, and kinesthetic, and by writing things down you kill two birds with one stone. It helps to write out charts (or at least synopses) of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, as well as to actually write sentences in English and then translate them to Latin or vice versa. I also tend to talk to myself while I study. This may be a sign of some insidious mental problem, but I find that if I can explain something to myself or hypothetically to a teacher or other student, I usually know the material pretty well.

Number four: breathe. One of the biggest mistakes people make is to psych themselves out about a test, exam, or even just a quiz. Despite popular opinion, it is not the end of the world if you do not make a one hundred. Keep in mind that a B is actually still above average (those of you with parents who insist upon all A’s may refer them to me). Often times, in fact, forcing yourself to know everything to a T is counterproductive because of the stress. I actually force myself to stop studying in the five minutes before a test. This allows me to focus on the test, not on the stuff I do not know.

Number five: think. Latin is a very logical language, which is why it survived as the academic lingua franca for so many centuries. As such, many things can be derived just by thinking about them. So if you do not remeber a specific rule, logic it out, that is how Latin came to be in the first place.

• Use a 12 x 8 board
• Black plays first.
• All pieces may move any number of spaces in the horizontal or vertical
  direction.
• A single stone is captured if it is surrounded on two opposite sides.
• The outside walls cannot be used to capture men.
• A stone in the corner can be captured by two stones placed across the
  corner.
• Multiple stones can be captured along a line.
• The king (or dux) cannot be captured but can be immobilized by being
  surrounded on all four sides.
• First player to immobilize the enemy king wins.
• The king is immobilized if it is blocked by an enemy stone such that it has
  no place left to move.
• If the game stalemates, the player with the most captured enemy stones wins.
• Sequences of plays that repeat endlessly must be prohibited (this is usually
  obvious to both players after two series of moves repeats — any move initiating
  a third repeating series of moves is illegal).
• Players must announce when they ‘squeeze’ a stone in-between enemy stones
  (to avoid any later dispute).

This set of rules allows for a game that is winnable, though very difficult. Since any piece can move any number of spaces in any direction, capturing any piece can be a real challenge. Therefore, opening sequences are very important; how you start a game can determine the outcome. Compared to chess, Latrunculi may seem simplistic, but I speak from experience when I say that it is very difficult and just as intellectual.

• Di te ament: “Good Luck.” Literally, “May the gods love you,” this phrase is used to wish someone furtune.
• Gratias tibi ago: “Thank You.” This saying really means, “I do grateful things for you.” The Romans had no words for, or even concepts of “Please” or “You’re welcome,” so I really think that this phrase ought to be translated more forcefully, something like, “I do grafetul things to you.”
• Salutem dicit: “Says a Greeting.” This is used in the opening of a letter and would actually be used in the third person about the writer to the recipient, something like, “Marcus Antonius salutem dicit Augusto Caesari,” which means, “Mark Antony says a greeting to Augustus Caesar.”
• Uxorem duco: “To Lead a Wife.” The Roman social order was very strict and very sexist. There is no word for to marry, so this male chauvinist phrases takes its place.
• Necesse est: “It is Necessary.” For those of you who cannot remeber how to spell that dang word necessary, the Romans had the same problem. This phrase is typically paired with a dative to make a “must” statement of sorts (i.e. It is necessary for me to give this to you).
• Res publica: “A Public Thing.” The Roman idiom for their own style of government, this phrase is supposed to convey the openness of the Roman republican government.
• Senatus Populusque Romanus: “The Roman Senate and People.” Abbreviated as SPQR, this phrase adorned any decrees of the Senate, and is related in implication to the phrase, “res publica.”
• Iste, Ista, Istud: This is, an actuality, a pronoun, not a saying, but I though it would be good to mention. It means, essentially, “that thing of yours,” and is often used derogatorily.
• Noli. . .: “Do not. . .” This is perhaps the nicest commend phrase in Latin. The negative imperative comes fro the verb nolo, “I am unwilling,” and is translated literally as “Do not wish to. . .”

You probably won’t be able to use these phrases in any real context, but they provide a window into Roman life and culture.

• The Arch: By distributiong wieght from the capstone down into the ground, the Roman arch could support massive loads and enebled the romans to construct the Coliseum, bridges, and many miles of raised aquaducts.
• The Hypocaust: From the Greek for the fire underneath, a hypocaust or hypocaustum is the Roman version of an HVAC system. A furnace at the rear of a building provided hot air which was channeled through tubulito wherever heating was needed and then vented out of the roof. This system was very common is public baths, where a conatant supply of heat was needed. This hypocaust system worked so well that a Roman bather would have to wear wooden sandals in order to walk in the caldarium, or hot room, in a bathhouse.
• Concrete: The Romans invented concrete and used it to great success, so much, in fact, that many of their concrete structures and roads are still intact. Roman concrete, made from a mixture of hydrated lime, sand, and stones of varying sizes, was waterproof and used in everything from roads, to aquaducts, to the Flavian Amphitheater.
• Aquaducts: There are eleven aquaducts leading to Rome from various mountain springs in the surrounding countryside. The aquaducts travel underground through the mountains until within a few miles of Rome itself, where the Romans built raised aquaducts. This entire system runs on gravity. There is a constant downgrade from each of the source springs to the terminus of each aquaduct, and the force of gravity and weight of the water created enough pressure for a household to have faucet-style running water. Combined, the eleven aquaducts leadings to Rome brought enough water for each inhabitant to have more than 250 gallons per day.
• Baths: The Roman bath, or therma, was the centerpoint of daily life and the culmination of Roman engineering. A bath incorporated arches, concrete, water, and an extensive hypocaust system. Because baths were in such high demand, being a place of commerce and in daily use, they provided engineers with an extensive palate with which to work.